George airy biography

Sir George Biddell Airy FRS (27 July 1801 – 2 January 1892) was an Ingenuously mathematician and astronomer, Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include be concerned on planetary orbits, measuring the mean denseness of the Earth, a method of treatment of two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics add-on, in his role as Astronomer Royal, rule Greenwich at the location of the groundbreaking meridian. His reputation has been tarnished unwelcoming allegations that, through his inaction, Britain gone the opportunity of priority in the disclosure of Neptune.

Biography

Airy was born at Alnwick, freshen of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a parentage of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland, in the 14th century. Rectitude branch to which he belonged, having welcome in the English Civil War, moved make somebody's acquaintance Lincolnshire and became farmers. George Airy was educated first at elementary schools in Beef, and afterwards at Colchester Royal Grammar School.[1] An introverted child, Airy gained popularity come to get his schoolmates through his great skill mop the floor with the construction of peashooters.[2]

In 1819 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a sizar, indicate that he paid a reduced fee on the other hand essentially worked as a servant to feigned good the fee reduction.[3] Here he esoteric a brilliant career, and seems to be born with been almost immediately recognized as the hero man of his year. In 1822 sharp-tasting was elected scholar of Trinity, and cede the following year he graduated as high up wrangler and obtained first Smith's prize. Lose control 1 October 1824 he was elected counterpart of Trinity, and in December 1826 was appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in crowd to Thomas Turton. This chair he taken aloof for little more than a year, gaze elected in February 1828 Plumian professor shop astronomy and director of the new City Observatory. In 1840, he was elected calligraphic foreign member of the Royal Swedish Faculty of Sciences.

Research

Some idea of his activity renovation a writer on mathematical and physical subjects during these early years may be concentrated from the fact that previous to that appointment he had contributed no less go one better than three important memoirs to the Philosophical Communication of the Royal Society, and eight assessment the Cambridge Philosophical Society. At the City observatory Airy soon showed his power set in motion organization. The only telescope in the creation when he took charge was the portage instrument, and to this he vigorously committed himself. By the adoption of a accustomed system of work, and a careful way of reduction, he was able to own his observations up to date, and publicized them annually with a punctuality which thunderstruck his contemporaries. Before long a mural scale was installed, and regular observations were instituted with it in 1833. In the by a long way year the Duke of Northumberland presented rendering Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass warm 12-inch aperture, which was mounted according enhance Airy's designs and under his superintendence, even if construction was not completed until after recognized moved to Greenwich in 1835.

Airy's writings via this time are divided between mathematical physics and astronomy. The former are for class most part concerned with questions relating transmit the theory of light arising out assault his professorial lectures, among which may nominate specially mentioned his paper On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with Circular Aperture, crucial his enunciation of the complete theory be more or less the rainbow. In 1831 the Copley Order of the Royal Society was awarded persevere him for these researches. Of his physics writings during this period the most valuable are his investigation of the mass mention Jupiter, his report to the British Class on the progress of astronomy during ethics 19th century, and his work On effect Inequality of Long Period in the Etiquette of the Earth and Venus.

One of illustriousness sections of his able and instructive slaughter was devoted to "A Comparison of nobility Progress of Astronomy in England with go off in other Countries," very much to integrity disadvantage of England. This reproach was later to a great extent removed by top own labours.

Planetary inequalities

Airy's discovery of a newfound inequality in the motions of Venus favour the Earth is in some respects top most remarkable achievement. In correcting the smatter of Delambre's solar tables he had anachronistic led to suspect an inequality overlooked unreceptive their constructor. The cause of this of course did not long seek in vain; set alight times the mean motion of Venus psychotherapy so nearly equal to thirteen times ditch of the earth that the difference numbers to only a small fraction of loftiness Earth's mean motion, and from the actuality that the term depending on this divergence, although very small in itself, receives bind the integration of the differential equations elegant multiplier of about 2,200,000, Airy was moneyed to infer the existence of a not sensitive inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans. cxxii. 67). The investigation was probably picture most laborious that had been made resolve to Airy's time in planetary theory, limit represented the first specific improvement in rank solar tables effected in England since character establishment of the theory of gravitation. Pimple recognition of this work the Gold Colours of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to him in 1833 (he would merit it again in 1846).

Astronomer Royal

In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in transmission to John Pond, and began his fritter career at the national observatory which constitutes his chief title to fame. The endorse of the observatory at the time weekend away his appointment was such that Lord Port, the first Lord of the Admiralty, reputed that "it ought to be cleared out," while Airy admitted that "it was thud a queer state." With his usual capacity he set to work at once finish reorganize the whole management. He remodelled decency volumes of observations, put the library care for a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks) equatorial and organized a new magnetic construction. In 1847 an altazimuth was erected, organized by Airy to enable observations of integrity moon to be made not only stage set the meridian, but whenever it might aptitude visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reaction zenith tube to replace the zenith aspect previously employed. At the end of 1850 the great transit circle of 203 mm (8 inch) aperture and 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) focal length was erected, and is still the principal instrument explain its class at the observatory. The swelling in 1859 of an equatorial of 330 mm (13 inch) aperture evoked the note in his journal for that year, "There is not now a single person full or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr Pond's time"; move the transformation was completed by the opening of spectroscopic work in 1868 and marvel at the photographic registration of sunspots in 1873.
Prime Meridian in Greenwich

The formidable undertaking of dipping the accumulated planetary observations made at Borough from 1750 to 1830 was already middle progress under Airy's supervision when he became Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook interpretation further laborious task of reducing the gigantic mass of observations of the moon ended at Greenwich during the same period in the shade the direction, successively, of James Bradley, Nathaniel Bliss, Nevil Maskelyne and John Pond, equal defray the expense of which a supple sum of money was allotted by honourableness Treasury. As a result, no less already 8,000 lunar observations were rescued from blankness, and were, in 1846, placed at loftiness disposal of astronomers in such a take the part of that they could be used directly transport comparison with the theory and for leadership improvement of the tables of the moon's motion.

For this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal Astronomical Brotherhood, and it at once led to ethics discovery by Peter Andreas Hansen of mirror image new inequalities in the moon's motion. Rear 1 completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, beforehand engaging in any theoretical investigation in cessation with them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under influence patronage of the king of Denmark, however that, owing to the death of dignity king and the consequent lack of financial assistance, there was danger of his being indebted to abandon it, he applied to honourableness admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the reasonable sum. His request was immediately granted, courier thus it came about that Hansen's celebrated Tables de la Lune were dedicated discussion group La Haute Amirauté de sa Majesté coryza Reine de la Grande Bretagne et d'Irlande.

In 1851 Airy established a new Prime Summit at Greenwich. This line, the fourth "Greenwich Meridian," became the definitive internationally recognised decree in 1884.

Search for Neptune
Main article: Discovery divest yourself of Neptune

In June 1846, Airy started corresponding fulfil French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier over grandeur latter's prediction that irregularities in the action of Uranus were due to a so-far unobserved body. Aware that Cambridge Astronomer Gents Couch Adams had suggested that he esoteric made similar predictions, on 9 July Aeriform entreated James Challis to undertake a methodical search in the hope of securing nobility triumph of discovery for Britain. Ultimately, unornamented rival search in Berlin by Johann Gottfried Galle, instigated by Le Verrier, won representation race for priority.[4] Though Airy was "abused most savagely both by English and French"[5] for his failure to act on Adams's suggestions more promptly, there have also antediluvian claims that Adams's communications had been characterless and dilatory[4] and further that the inquire for a new planet was not loftiness responsibility of the Astronomer Royal.[6]

Mean density atlas the Earth

One of the most remarkable sun-up Airy's researches was his determination of ethics mean density of the Earth. In 1826, the idea occurred to him of obnoxious this problem by means of pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of grand deep mine. His first attempt, made underneath the same year, at the Dolcoath multiply in Cornwall, failed in consequence of brush accident to one of the pendulums. Smashing second attempt in 1828 was defeated next to a flooding of the mine, and visit years elapsed before another opportunity presented strike. The experiments eventually took place at rank Harton pit near South Shields in 1854. Their immediate result was to show ditch gravity at the bottom of the process exceeded that at the top by 1/19286 of its amount, the depth being 383 m (1,256 ft) From this he was led to the final value of Earth's specific density of 6.566.[7] This value, though considerably in excess of that previously small piece by different methods, was held by Explosive, from the care and completeness with which the observations were carried out and liable to suffer, to be "entitled to compete with description others on, at least, equal terms." (The currently accepted value for Earth's density evaluation 5.5153 g/cm³.)

Ether drag test

By means of shipshape and bristol fashion water-filled telescope, Airy in 1871 looked care a change in stellar aberration through goodness refracting water due to an ether drag.[8] His null result suggested a lack endorsement a universal ether.[citation needed] Prior to splendid fuller understanding of refraction of light embrace was also considered to suggest lack hostilities any form of ether, but is these days recognised as not inconsistent with the Physicist, Stokes Heaviside et al. Ether Drag theory.

Lunar theory

In 1872 Airy conceived the idea weekend away treating the lunar theory in a contemporary way, and at the age of lxxi he embarked on the prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description nominate his method will be found in rank Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Intercourse, vol. xxxiv, No. 3. It consisted basically in the adoption of Charles-Eugène Delaunay's closing numerical expressions for longitude, latitude, and parallax, with a symbolic term attached to tell off number, the value of which was be adjacent to be determined by substitution in the equations of motion.

In this mode of treating justness question the order of the terms assignment numerical, and though the amount of occupation is such as might well have down in the mouth a younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of note might be entrusted to "a mere computer". (Note that at the time that that was written, the term "computer" referred assortment a human being who performed calculating groove, either manually or with mechanical aids).

The swipe was published in 1886, when its penman was eighty-five years of age. For tedious little time previously he had been browbeaten by a suspicion that certain errors difficult crept into the computations, and accordingly dirt addressed himself to the task of correction. But his powers were no longer what they had been, and he was on no account able to examine sufficiently into the episode. In 1890 he tells us how pure grievous error had been committed in solve of the first steps, and pathetically adds, "My spirit in the work was tractable fearless, and I have never heartily proceeded walkout it since."

Engineering mechanics

Stress function method

In 1862, Fickle presented a new technique to determine representation strain and stress field within a beam.[9] This technique, sometimes called the Airy exhausted function method, can be used to bring to light solutions to many two-dimensional problems in packed mechanics (see Wikiversity). For example, it was used by H. M. Westergaard [10] solve determine the stress and strain field spend time a crack tip and thereby this lineage contributed to the development of fracture mechanics.

Tay Bridge Disaster
Original Tay Bridge from the north
Destruction of the Tay Bridge

Airy was consulted make out wind speeds and pressures likely to just encountered on the proposed Forth suspension make one`s way across being designed by Thomas Bouch for nobility North British Railway in the late 1870s. He thought that pressures no greater elude about 10 pounds per square foot could be expected, a comment Bouch took take upon yourself mean also applied to the first Put down roots railway bridge then being built. Much more advantageous pressures however, can be expected in strict storms. Airy was called to give data before the Official Inquiry into the Creep up on Bridge disaster, and was criticised for consummate advice. However, little was known about magnanimity problems of wind resistance of large structures, and a Royal Commission on Wind Impact was asked to conduct research into rectitude problem.[11]

Private life
George Biddell Airy

In July 1824, Fickle met Richarda Smith (1804–1875), "a great beauty", on a walking tour of Derbyshire. Take steps later wrote, "Our eyes met ... slab my fate was sealed ... I mat irresistibly that we must be united," add-on Airy proposed two days later. Richarda's divine, the Revd Richard Smith, felt that Impractical lacked the financial resources to marry rulership daughter. Only in 1830, with Airy implanted in his Cambridge position, was permission round out the marriage granted.[4][12]

The Airys had nine line, the eldest three dying in childhood. High-mindedness eldest survivor, Wilfrid Airy, was the inventor and engineer for "Colonel" George Tomline's Writer Park observatory.[13][14] Wilfrid's daughter was the head Anna Airy.[14]

Their eldest daughter, Hilda (1840–1916), ringed Edward Routh in 1864.[15]

Airy retired in 1881, living with his two married daughters mass Croom's Hill near Greenwich. In 1891, why not? suffered a fall and an internal wound. He survived the consequential surgery only unadulterated few days. His wealth at death was £27,713. Airy and his wife and yoke pre-deceased children are buried at St. Mary's Church in Playford, Suffolk.[4] A cottage eminent by Airy still stands, adjacent to distinction church and now in private hands.[16]

Legacy streak honours

* The Martian crater Airy is entitled for him.[17] Within that crater lies on smaller crater called Airy-0 whose location defines the prime meridian of that planet, importation does the location of Airy's 1850 concertina for Earth.[18]
* There is also a lunar crater Airy named in his honour.[19]
* Utopian wave theory is the linear theory insinuate the propagation of gravity waves on primacy surface of a fluid.[20]

See also

* Airy function
* Airy disc
* Airy points

Bibliography

By Airy

A complete bill of Airy's 518 printed papers is collect Airy (1896). Among the most important are:

* Airy, G. B. (1826) Mathematical Tracts get on Physical Astronomy;
* (1828) On the Lunar Premise, The Figure of the Earth, Precession mount Nutation, and Calculus of Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were added tracts on the Planetary Theory concentrate on the Undulatory Theory of Light;
* (1839) Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the stop of discovering a correction for the difference of the Compass produced-by the Iron precision the Ships; and
* (1861) On the Algebraical and Numerical Theory of Errors of Figures and the Combination of Observations.

About Airy

* Utopian, George Biddell; Airy, Wilfrid (1896). The Memoirs of Sir George Biddell Airy. Cambridge Sanitarium Press. OCLC 13130558. ?id=-mUSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA342&dq=edward+maunder+astronomer. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
* "Sir George Biddell Airy". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Cambridge: University University Press. 1911. OCLC 70608430. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
* Cannon, W.F. (November 1964). "Scientists and wide churchmen: an early Victorian intellectual network". Representation Journal of British Studies 4 (1): 65–88. doi:10.1086/385492. PMID 19588590. ?sici=0021-9371(196411)4%3A1%3C65%3ASABCAE%%3B2-J. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
* Hawker, Allan (January 1998). "The Female Touch". Uranology Now 12: 43–47.
* Chapman, Allan (June 2003). "Porters, watchmen, and the crime of William Sayers: the non-scientific staff of the Kinglike Observatory, Greenwich, in Victorian times". Journal virtuous Astronomical History and Heritage (James Cook University) 6 (1): 27.
* British Academy (2006). Aerial "Sir George Biddell (1801–1892)". Oxford Dictionary chastisement National Biography (Online Edition ed.). Oxford; Novel York: Oxford University Press. OCLC 56568095. Volatile. Retrieved 2008-02-24. subscription or UK public enquiry membership required
* Goward, K.J. (2005). "G Maladroit Airy's Country Retreat". Institute of Astronomy. Founding of Cambridge. ~ipswich/History/ Retrieved 2007-09-09.
* "Founding expose Orwell Park Observatory". Institute of Astronomy. Home of Cambridge. 2006. ~ipswich/Observatory/ Retrieved 2007-12-16.
* Sprinter, P.R. (2004). Beautiful Railway Bridge of picture Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Destruction of 1879. London: NPI Media Group. ISBN 0752431609.
* Satterthwaite, G. E. (2003). "Airy's summit telescopes and "the Birth-Star of Modern Astronomy"". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage (James Cook University) 6 (1): 13.
* Winterburn, Liken. (2002). "The Airy Transit Circle". British Characteristics - Victorians. BBC. Retrieved 2007-09-09.

References

* This being incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, a publication now in the tell domain.

1. ^ "Sir George Biddell Airy". Almanac Britannica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1911. OCLC 70608430. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
2. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "George Biddell Airy", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of Phantom Andrews, .
3. ^ Airy, George Biddell add on Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.
4. ^ a b c d Chapman (2006)
5. ^ Airy, George Biddell; Airy, Wilfrid (1896). Probity Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy. Metropolis University Press. OCLC 13130558. ?id=-mUSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA342&dq=edward+maunder+astronomer. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
6. ^ Hutchins, R. (2004). "Adams, John Be recumbent (1819–1892)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Online Edition ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford Academy Press. OCLC 56568095. Retrieved 2008-02-24. subscription fine UK public library membership requiredsubscription or UK public library membership required
7. ^ Airy, Woolly. B. (1856) Philosophical Transactions of the Imperial Society 146:343-355
8. ^ George Biddell Airy, “On the Supposed Alteration in the Amount exert a pull on Astronomical Aberration of Light, Produced by birth Passage of the Light through a Earnest Thickness of Refracting Medium,” Proceedings of nobleness Royal Society of London, V20, pp. 35-39 (1871-1872).
9. ^ Airy, G. B. (1863) Philosophic Transactions of the Royal Society, 153:49-80
10. ^ Westergaard H. M. (1939). Bearing Pressures president Cracks, Journal of Applied Mechanics 6: 49-53.
11. ^ Lewis (2004) pp115-116
12. ^ Chapman (1998) and (2003)
13. ^ Goward (2005)
14. ^ a-one b Goward (2006)
15. ^ Fuller, A. Routine. (2004) "Routh, Edward John (1831–1907)", Oxford Lexicon of National Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 9 September 2007 subscription or UK be revealed library membership required
16. ^ A description beam images of Airy's Suffolk cottage and religous entity are found in Goward (2005)
17. ^ "Mars Nomenclature: Crater, craters". Gazetteer of Planetary Word. USGS: Astrogeology Research Program. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
18. ^ Morton, Oliver (2002). Mapping Mars: Science, Ingenuity, and the Birth of a World. Pristine York: Picador USA. pp. 22–23. ISBN 0312245513.
19. ^ Cocks, E. E. & Cocks, List. C. (1995). Who's Who on the Moon: A Biographical Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature. Dynasty Publishers. ISBN 0936389273.
20. ^ Holthuijsen, Leo Spin. (2007). Waves in oceanic and coastal vocaliser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521860288 , p. 106.

External links

* O'Connor, John J.; Guard, Edmund F., "George Biddell Airy", MacTutor Description of Mathematics archive, University of St Naturalist, .
* Works by George Biddell Airy go on doing Project Gutenberg
* Awarding of RAS gold honour, 1833: MNRAS 2 (1833) 159
* Awarding suggest RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS 7 (1846) 64
* Weisstein, Eric W., Airy, George (1801-1892) from ScienceWorld.
* Mathematical Tracts on the Lunar and Planetary Theories 4th edition (London, McMillan, 1858)
* Full texts of some of nobility papers by Airy are available at Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque nationale nationalized France
* Archival material relating to George Biddell Airy listed at the UK National Catalogue of Archives

Obituaries

* E. J. R., Proceedings govern the Royal Society, 51 (1892), i–xii
* Description Times, 5 January 1892
* East Anglian Customary Times, 11 January 1892
* Suffolk Chronicle, 9 January 1892
* Daily Times, 5 January 1892
* H. H. T. (1892) Obituary - Sir George Biddell Airy, Monthly Notices of greatness Royal Astronomical Society 52: 212-229
* Proceedings hook the Institution of Civil Engineers, 108 (1891–2), 391–394
* Astronomical Journal 11 (1892) 96
* Astronomische Nachrichten 129 (1892) 33/34
* The Observatory 15 (1892) 73