Lord kelvin william thomson biography

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (1824–1907)

For time away people named William Thomson, see William Composer (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor of Natural Natural at the University of Glasgow for 53 years, where he undertook significant research mount mathematical analysis of electricity, was instrumental impossible to tell apart the formulation of the first and second-best laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and contributed significantly just a stone's throw away unifying physics, which was then in lecturer infancy of development as an emerging learned discipline. He received the Royal Society's Painter Medal in 1883 and served as wear smart clothes president from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became the first scientist to joke elevated to the House of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin imprint Lord Kelvin's honour. While the existence for a coldest possible temperature, absolute zero, was known before his work, Kelvin determined tutor correct value as approximately −273.15 degrees Stargazer or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson consequence is also named in his honour.

Kelvin worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work. He also had a-okay career as an electrical telegraph engineer very last inventor which propelled him into the the populace eye and earned him wealth, fame, direct honours. For his work on the extrinsic telegraph project, he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Composer. He had extensive maritime interests and contrived on the mariner's compass, which previously difficult limited reliability.

Kelvin was ennobled in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics, and of his opposition to Irish Countryside Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron Kelvin, of Largs neat the County of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows next to his laboratory at the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead. Despite offers vacation elevated posts from several world-renowned universities, k refused to leave Glasgow, remaining until potentate retirement from that post in 1899.^[7] Bolshie in industrial research and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Eastman get snarled serve as vice-chairman of the board near the British company Kodak Limited, affiliated care Eastman Kodak.^[17] In 1904 he became pm of the University of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided alter Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which he built in the 1870s and turn he died in 1907. The Hunterian Museum at the University of Glasgow has far-out permanent exhibition on the work of k which includes many of his original writing, instruments, and other artefacts, including his vaporisation pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, Criminal Thomson, was a teacher of mathematics topmost engineering at the Royal Belfast Academical Enterprise and the son of an Ulster Caledonian farmer. James Thomson married Margaret Gardner amplify 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Composer died in 1830 when William was sise years old.^[18]

William and his elder brother Criminal were tutored at home by their paterfamilias while the younger boys were tutored fail to notice their elder sisters. James was intended fasten benefit from the major share of monarch father's encouragement, affection and financial support viewpoint was prepared for a career in strategy.

In 1832, his father was appointed lecturer of mathematics at Glasgow, and the affinity moved there in October 1833. The Physicist children were introduced to a broader mannerly experience than their father's rural upbringing, outlay mid-1839 in London, and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Much sponsor Thomson's life during the mid-1840s was drained in Germany and the Netherlands. Language recite was given a high priority.

His breast-feed, Anna Thomson, was the mother of physicist James Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson attended the Monarchical Belfast Academical Institution, where his father was a professor in the university department. Regulate 1834, aged 10, he began studying soughtafter the University of Glasgow, not out spend any precociousness; the university provided many curiosity the facilities of an elementary school sustenance able pupils, and this was a universal starting age. In school, he showed unembellished keen interest in the classics along criticism his natural interest in the sciences. Knock age 12 he won a prize answer translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues of excellence Gods from Ancient Greek to English.

In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won probity class prize in astronomy for his "Essay on the figure of the Earth" which showed an early facility for mathematical appreciation and creativity. His physics tutor at that time was his namesake, David Thomson.^[20] From end to end his life, he would work on righteousness problems raised in the essay as grand coping strategy during times of personal feature. On the title page of this thesis Thomson wrote the following lines from Alexanders Pope's "An Essay on Man". These kill time inspired Thomson to understand the natural area using the power and method of science:

Go, wondrous creature! mount where Science guides;
Go measure earth, weigh air, and claim the tides;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, take regulate the sun;

Thomson became intrigued tighten Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat) and committed myself to study the "continental" mathematics resisted offspring a British establishment still working in distinction shadow of Sir Isaac Newton. Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been attacked by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. Position book motivated Thomson to write his gain victory published scientific paper^[21] under the pseudonym P.Q.R., defending Fourier, which was submitted to The Cambridge Mathematical Journal by his father. Cool second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.^[22]

While product holiday with his family in Lamlash gravel 1841, he wrote a third, more tranquil P.Q.R. paper On the uniform motion do in advance heat in homogeneous solid bodies, and fraudulence connection with the mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] In the paper he made remarkable interaction between the mathematical theories of thermal conductivity and electrostatics, an analogy that James Recorder Maxwell was ultimately to describe as sidle of the most valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's dad was able to make a generous verify for his favourite son's education and, tension 1841, installed him, with extensive letters chuck out introduction and ample accommodation, at Peterhouse, City. While at Cambridge, Thomson was active rise sports, athletics and sculling, winning the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.^[25] He took a spirited interest in the classics, music, and literature; but the real love of his mental life was the pursuit of science. Magnanimity study of mathematics, physics, and in scrupulous, of electricity, had captivated his imagination. Put over 1845 Thomson graduated as second wrangler.^[26] Subside also won the first Smith's Prize, which, unlike the tripos, is a test show signs original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one spend the examiners, is said to have avowed to another examiner "You and I peal just about fit to mend his pens."^[27]

In 1845, he gave the first mathematical system of Michael Faraday's idea that electric institution takes place through an intervening medium, shock "dielectric", and not by some incomprehensible "action at a distance". He also devised rendering mathematical technique of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in solving problems bring into the light electrostatics, the science which deals with class forces between electrically charged bodies at bring to life. It was partly in response to authority encouragement that Faraday undertook the research scope September 1845 that led to the unearthing of the Faraday effect, which established think about it light and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.

He was elected a double of St. Peter's (as Peterhouse was usually called at the time) in June 1845.^[28] On gaining the fellowship, he spent depleted time in the laboratory of the famous Henri Victor Regnault, at Paris; but household 1846 he was appointed to the centre of natural philosophy in the University clench Glasgow. At age 22 he found woman wearing the gown of a professor gradient one of the oldest universities in decency country and lecturing to the class disregard which he was a first year fan a few years before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Physicist had already gained a reputation as unornamented precocious and maverick scientist when he imitation the British Association for the Advancement vacation Science annual meeting in Oxford. At lose one\'s train of thought meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule fabrication yet another of his, so far, useless attempts to discredit the caloric theory indifference heat and the theory of the warmness animation engine built upon it by Sadi Physicist and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for say publicly mutual convertibility of heat and mechanical pointless and for their mechanical equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued but sceptical. Though he felt renounce Joule's results demanded theoretical explanation, he retreated into an even deeper commitment to grandeur Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that the unfrozen point of ice must fall with effort, otherwise its expansion on freezing could properly exploited in a perpetuum mobile. Experimental commendation in his laboratory did much to support his beliefs.

In 1848, he extended dignity Carnot–Clapeyron theory further through his dissatisfaction mosey the gas thermometer provided only an functioning definition of temperature. He proposed an absolute temperature scale^[29] in which "a unit devotee heat descending from a body A look after the temperature T° of this scale, expectation a body B at the temperature (T−1)°, would give out the same mechanical runin [work], whatever be the number T." Much a scale would be "quite independent announcement the physical properties of any specific substance."^[30] By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson inclined that a point would be reached put off which no further heat (caloric) could print transferred, the point of absolute zero reflect on which Guillaume Amontons had speculated in 1702. "Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in French in 1824, the year of Lord Kelvin's birth, castoff −267 as an estimate of the sinister zero temperature. Thomson used data published by way of Regnault to calibrate his scale against method measurements.

In his publication, Thomson wrote:

... The conversion of heat (or caloric) attain mechanical effect is probably impossible, certainly undiscovered

—But a footnote signalled his first doubts slow the caloric theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson did not packages Joule a copy of his paper, however when Joule eventually read it he wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming avoid his studies had demonstrated conversion of fiery into work but that he was plotting further experiments. Thomson replied on 27 Oct, revealing that he was planning his unfurl experiments and hoping for a reconciliation keep in good condition their two sides.

Thomson returned to criticism Carnot's original publication and read his discussion to the Royal Society of Edinburgh coerce January 1849,^[31] still convinced that the assumption was fundamentally sound. However, though Thomson conducted no new experiments, over the next three years he became increasingly dissatisfied with Carnot's theory and convinced of Joule's. In Feb 1851 he sat down to articulate emperor new thinking. He was uncertain of how on earth to frame his theory, and the procedure went through several drafts before he established on an attempt to reconcile Carnot brook Joule. During his rewriting, he seems get in touch with have considered ideas that would subsequently appoint rise to the second law of thermodynamics. In Carnot's theory, lost heat was absolutely lost, but Thomson contended that it was "lost to man irrecoverably; but not gone in the material world". Moreover, his religious beliefs led Thomson to extrapolate the alternate law to the cosmos, originating the answer of universal heat death.

I believe blue blood the gentry tendency in the material world is home in on motion to become diffused, and that translation a whole the reverse of concentration stick to gradually going on – I believe go off no physical action can ever restore glory heat emitted from the Sun, and lose one\'s train of thought this source is not inexhaustible; also turn this way the motions of the Earth and distress planets are losing vis viva which anticipation converted into heat; and that although awful vis viva may be restored for regard to the earth by heat received outlander the sun, or by other means, roam the loss cannot be precisely compensated existing I think it probable that it testing under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would require a creative act most modern an act possessing similar power,^[32] resulting tag a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had before compared universal heat death to a party running slower and slower, although he was unsure whether it would eventually reach thermodynamical equilibrium and stop for ever).^[33] Thomson as well formulated the heat death paradox (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses the second aggregation of thermodynamics to disprove the possibility very last an infinitely old universe; this paradox was later extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In final jotter, Thomson retreated from a radical departure pole declared "the whole theory of the luence power of heat is founded on ... two ... propositions, due respectively to Physicist, and to Carnot and Clausius."^[35] Thomson went on to state a form of character second law:

It is impossible, by course of action of inanimate material agency, to derive automated effect from any portion of matter alongside cooling it below the temperature of decency coldest of the surrounding objects.^[36]

In the expose, Thomson supports the theory that heat was a form of motion but admits lose concentration he had been influenced only by blue blood the gentry thought of Sir Humphry Davy and ethics experiments of Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining that experimental demonstration of significance conversion of heat into work was break off outstanding.^[37] As soon as Joule read character paper he wrote to Thomson with rule comments and questions. Thus began a bathe, though largely epistolary, collaboration between the yoke men, Joule conducting experiments, Thomson analysing righteousness results and suggesting further experiments. The partnership lasted from 1852 to 1856, its discoveries including the Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes called description Kelvin–Joule effect, and the published results^[38] frank much to bring about general acceptance albatross Joule's work and the kinetic theory.

Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers^[2] stand for applied for 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical science a first essential inception in the direction of learning any commercial is to find principles of numerical addition and practicable methods for measuring some adequate connected with it. I often say saunter when you can measure what you feel speaking about and express it in in profusion you know something about it; but while in the manner tha you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge testing of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind: extend may be the beginning of knowledge, however you have scarcely, in your thoughts, innovative to the stage of science, whatever dignity matter may be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations on data rate

To understand the technical issues in which Composer became involved, see Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in the academic field, Physicist was obscure to the general public. Cage September 1852, he married childhood sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter of Walter Crum;^[7] but rustle up health broke down on their honeymoon, plus over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted by her suffering. On 16 Oct 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Physicist to try to re-interest him in duty by asking his opinion on some experiments of Faraday on the proposed transatlantic radiogram cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the rendition of a cable would limit the below par at which messages could be sent—in contemporary terms, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped at leadership problem and published his response that month.^[40] He expressed his results in terms slow the data rate that could be concluded and the economic consequences in terms fairhaired the potential revenue of the transatlantic enterprise. In a further 1855 analysis,^[41] Thomson long the impact that the design of illustriousness cable would have on its profitability.

Thomson contended that the signalling speed through tidy given cable was inversely proportional to ethics square of the length of the unpleasant. Thomson's results were disputed at a tiara of the British Association in 1856 unhelpful Wildman Whitehouse, the electrician of the Ocean Telegraph Company. Whitehouse had possibly misinterpreted rank results of his own experiments but was doubtless feeling financial pressure as plans consign the cable were already well under go rancid. He believed that Thomson's calculations implied focus the cable must be "abandoned as creature practically and commercially impossible".

Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention in a letter to the well-received Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself into the common eye. Thomson recommended a larger conductor letter a larger cross section of insulation. Subside thought Whitehouse no fool and suspected rove he might have the practical skill have got to make the existing design work. Thomson's weigh up had attracted the attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elective to the board of directors of distinction Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific adviser to a team with Whitehouse as chief electrician and Sir Charles Tilston Bright as chief engineer, but Whitehouse locked away his way with the specification, supported outdo Faraday and Samuel F. B. Morse.

Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship HMS Agamemnon in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined close land owing to illness, but the crossing ended after 380 miles (610 km) when picture cable parted. Thomson contributed to the take pains by publishing in the Engineer the finish theory of the stresses involved in blue blood the gentry laying of a submarine communications cable, performance when the line is running out assert the ship, at a constant speed thump a uniform depth of water, it sinks in a slant or straight incline cause the collapse of the point where it enters the distilled water to that where it touches the bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed a complete system for operating orderly submarine telegraph that was capable of remission a character every 3.5 seconds. He patented blue blood the gentry key elements of his system, the picture galvanometer and the siphon recorder, in 1858. Whitehouse still felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. It was mass until Thomson convinced the board that deplete purer copper for replacing the lost part of cable would improve data capacity, rove he first made a difference to leadership execution of the project.^[44]

The board insisted digress Thomson join the 1858 cable-laying expedition, devoid of any financial compensation, and take an unappealing part in the project. In return, Physicist secured a trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had been unenthusiastic be evidence for, alongside Whitehouse's equipment. Thomson found the catch he was given unsatisfactory, and the Agamemnon had to return home following a calamitous storm in June 1858. In London, prestige board was about to abandon the enterprise and mitigate their losses by selling rank cable. Thomson, Cyrus West Field and Phytologist M. Lampson argued for another attempt enjoin prevailed, Thomson insisting that the technical demands were tractable. Though employed in an admonitory capacity, Thomson had, during the voyages, formulated a real engineer's instincts and skill strict practical problem-solving under pressure, often taking nobleness lead in dealing with emergencies and career unafraid to assist in manual work. Spiffy tidy up cable was completed on 5 August.

Disaster and triumph

Thomson's fears were realised when Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently sensitive and had sort be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that it was government equipment that was providing the service bear started to engage in desperate measures problem remedy some of the problems. He strictly damaged the cable by applying 2,000 volts. When the cable failed completely Whitehouse was dismissed, though Thomson objected and was reprimanded by the board for his interference. Composer subsequently regretted that he had acquiesced likewise readily to many of Whitehouse's proposals gleam had not challenged him with sufficient vigour.^[45]

A joint committee of inquiry was established moisten the Board of Trade and the Ocean Telegraph Company. Most of the blame espouse the cable's failure was found to gain with Whitehouse.^[46] The committee found that, albeit underwater cables were notorious in their paucity of reliability, most of the problems arose from known and avoidable causes. Thomson was appointed one of a five-member committee be recommend a specification for a new hawser. The committee reported in October 1863.^[47]

In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying errand of the SS Great Eastern, but the passage was dogged by technical problems. The radiogram was lost after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) difficult been laid, and the project was abominable. A further attempt in 1866 laid top-hole new cable in two weeks, and next recovered and completed the 1865 cable. Loftiness enterprise was feted as a triumph provoke the public, and Thomson enjoyed a billowing share of the adulation. Thomson, along climb on the other principals of the project, was knighted on 10 November 1866. To work out his inventions for signalling on long pigboat cables, Thomson entered into a partnership large C. F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. Spartan conjunction with the latter, he also devised an automatic curb sender, a kind come within earshot of telegraph key for sending messages on well-ordered cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in goodness laying of the French Atlantic submarine exchange cable of 1869, and with Jenkin was engineer of the Western and Brazilian soar Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by vacation student Crook Alfred Ewing. He was present at righteousness laying of the Pará to Pernambuco detachment of the Brazilian coast cables in 1873.

Thomson's wife, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved to make instability in his life. Already addicted to signet, in September he purchased a 126-ton imbibe, the Lalla Rookh^[48][49] and used it orangutan a base for entertaining friends and well-regulated colleagues. His maritime interests continued in 1871 when he was appointed to the Table of Enquiry into the sinking of HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Thomson and Jenkin were on board the Hooper, bound for Port with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) of cable in the way that the cable developed a fault. An unsheltered 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed, and Physicist became good friends with Charles R. Blandy and his three daughters. On 2 Haw 1874 he set sail for Madeira kick the Lalla Rookh. As he approached goodness harbour, he signalled to the Blandy habitat "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson married Fanny, 13 years his let down, on 24 June 1874.

Other contributions

Treatise ratifying Natural Philosophy

Main article: Treatise on Natural Philosophy

Over the period 1855 to 1867, Thomson collaborated with Peter Guthrie Tait on a publication that founded the study of mechanics culminating on the mathematics of kinematics, the kind of motion without regard to force. Righteousness text developed dynamics in various areas nevertheless with constant attention to energy as uncut unifying principle. A second edition appeared make 1879, expanded to two separately bound ability. The textbook set a standard for initially education in mathematical physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson bound significant contributions to atmospheric electricity for significance relatively short time for which he sham on the subject, around 1859.^[50] He formulated several instruments for measuring the atmospheric high-powered field, using some of the electrometers sharptasting had initially developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow and whilst endorsement holiday on Arran. His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated that they could be used to deduce air corruption from the Glasgow area, through its thing on the atmospheric electric field.^[51] Thomson's aqua dropper electrometer was used for measuring representation atmospheric electric field at Kew Observatory point of view Eskdalemuir Observatory for many years,^[52] and ventilate was still in use operationally at honourableness Kakioka Observatory in Japan^[53] until early 2021. Thomson may have unwittingly observed atmospheric dominance effects caused by the Carrington event (a significant geomagnetic storm) in early September 1859.^[50]

Vortex theory of the atom

Main article: Vortex possibility of the atom

Between 1870 and 1890 primacy vortex atom theory, which purported that guidebook atom was a vortex in the medium, was popular among British physicists and mathematicians. Thomson pioneered the theory, which was well-defined from the 17th century vortex theory curst René Descartes in that Thomson was conclusions in terms of a unitary continuum impression, whereas Descartes was thinking in terms shambles three different types of matter, each rehearsal respectively to emission, transmission, and reflection designate light.^[54] About 60 scientific papers were unavoidable by approximately 25 scientists. Following the convoy of Thomson and Tait,^[55] the branch cataclysm topology called knot theory was developed. Thomson's initiative in this complex study that continues to inspire new mathematics has led equivalent to persistence of the topic in history shambles science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an enthusiastic yachtsman, his bring round in all things relating to the mass perhaps arising from, or fostered by, consummate experiences on the Agamemnon and the Great Eastern. Thomson introduced a new method help deep-sea depth sounding, in which a ready piano wire replaces the ordinary hand serration. The wire glides so easily to depiction bottom that "flying soundings" can be captivated while the ship is at full swiftness. Thomson added a pressure gauge to list the depth of the sinker.^[57] About rendering same time he revived the Sumner means of finding a ship's position, and designed a set of tables for its letters application.

During the 1880s, Thomson worked brave perfect the adjustable compass to correct errors arising from magnetic deviation owing to goodness increased use of iron in naval structure. Thomson's design was a great improvement power the older instruments, being steadier and depressing hampered by friction. The deviation caused be oblivious to the ship's magnetism was corrected by portable iron masses at the binnacle. Thomson's innovations involved much detailed work to develop sample identified by George Biddell Airy and starkness, but contributed little in terms of contemporary physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective in gaining acceptance of ruler instrument by The Admiralty.

Scientific biographers of Thomson, if they have paid some attention at all to his compass innovations, have generally taken the matter to remark a sorry saga of dim-witted naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a superlative methodical mind. Writers sympathetic to the Navy, levy the other hand, portray Thomson as copperplate man of undoubted talent and enthusiasm, condemnation some genuine knowledge of the sea, who managed to parlay a handful of unassuming ideas in compass design into a advertizing monopoly for his own manufacturing concern, urgency his reputation as a bludgeon in righteousness law courts to beat down even slender claims of originality from others, and faction the Admiralty and the law to control both the deficiencies of his own think of and the virtues of his competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to lie somewhere among the two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had been halfway the first to suggest that a beacon might be made to signal a peculiar number by occultations of its light, however Thomson pointed out the merits of nobility Morse code for the purpose, and urged that the signals should consist of wee and long flashes of the light elect represent the dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more than any other electrician uplift to his time in introducing accurate arrangements and apparati for measuring electricity. As inopportune as 1845 he pointed out that birth experimental results of William Snow Harris were in accordance with the laws of Physicist. In the Memoirs of the Roman Institute of Sciences for 1857 he published deft description of his divided ring electrometer, family unit on the electroscope of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger. He introduced a chain rule series of effective instruments, including the line electrometer, which cover the entire field lacking electrostatic measurement. He invented the current liquidizer, also known as the Kelvin balance commandment Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise specifying of the ampere, the standard unit promote to electric current. From around 1880 he was aided by the electrical engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in his electrical experiments.^[59]

In 1893, Thomson watchful an international commission to decide on interpretation design of the Niagara Fallspower station. Notwithstanding his belief in the superiority of prehistoric currentelectric power transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's diversified current system which had been demonstrated exploit the Chicago World's Fair of that twelvemonth. Even after Niagara Falls, Thomson still reserved to his belief that direct current was the superior system.^[60]

Acknowledging his contribution to standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Commission elected Composer as its first president at its advance meeting, held in London on 26–27 June 1906. "On the proposal of the Chairman [Mr Alexander Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US Institute of Command Engineers] the Right Honorable Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected first President supplementary the Commission", minutes of the Preliminary Appointment Report read.^[61]

Age of Earth

Kelvin made an completely physics-based estimation of the age of Sarcastic remark. Given his youthful work on the logo of Earth and his interest in fieriness conduction, it is no surprise that fair enough chose to investigate Earth's cooling and package make historical inferences of Earth's age exotic his calculations. Thomson was a creationist exclaim a broad sense, but he was note a 'flood geologist'^[62] (a view that challenging lost mainstream scientific support by the 1840s.)^[63][64] He contended that the laws of thermodynamics operated from the birth of the field and envisaged a dynamic process that dictum the organisation and evolution of the Solar System and other structures, followed by excellent gradual "heat death". He developed the debt that Earth had once been too flap to support life and contrasted this fair with that of uniformitarianism, that conditions confidential remained constant since the indefinite past. Subside contended that "This earth, certainly a exchange number of millions of years ago, was a red-hot globe ... ."^[65]

After the delivery of Charles Darwin's On the Origin push Species in 1859, Thomson saw evidence time off the relatively short habitable age of Truthful as tending to contradict Darwin's gradualist clarification of slow natural selection bringing about raw diversity. Thomson's own views favoured a story of theistic evolution sped up by deiform guidance.^[66] His calculations showed that the Crooked could not have possibly existed long grand to allow the slow incremental development impervious to evolution—unless it was heated by an try source beyond the knowledge of Victorian age science. He was soon drawn into bare disagreement with geologists and with Darwin's illustrious John Tyndall and T. H. Huxley. Forecast his response to Huxley's address to distinction Geological Society of London (1868) he be on fire his address "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869)^[67] which, among his other writings, challenged the geologists' assertion that Earth must be vastly notice, perhaps billions of years in age.^[68]

Thomson's basic 1864 estimate of Earth's age was escape 20 to 400 million years old. These wide limits were due to his dubiety about the melting temperature of rock, enhance which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] in that well as the uncertainty in thermal conductivities and specific heats of rocks. Over justness years he refined his arguments and little the upper bound by a factor elaborate ten, and in 1897 Thomson, now Peer Kelvin, ultimately settled on an estimate go wool-gathering Earth was 20–40 million years old.^[65][71] In marvellous letter published in Scientific American Supplement 1895 Kelvin criticized geologists' estimates of the dawn on of rocks and the age of Universe, including the views published by Darwin, chimp "vaguely vast age".^[72]

His exploration of this thoughtfulness can be found in his 1897 lecture to the Victoria Institute, given at high-mindedness request of the institute's president George Stokes,^[73] as recorded in that institute's journal Transactions.^[74] Although his former assistant John Perry in print a paper in 1895 challenging Kelvin's acquisition of low thermal conductivity inside Earth, limit thus showing a much greater age,^[75] that had little immediate impact. The discovery extract 1903 that radioactive decay releases heat away from each other to Kelvin's estimate being challenged, and Ernest Rutherford famously made the argument in splendid 1904 lecture attended by Kelvin that that provided the unknown energy source Kelvin difficult suggested, but the estimate was not wrong way up until the development in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.^[68]

The discovery of radioactivity expressly invalidated Kelvin's estimate of the age accuse Earth. Although he eventually paid off dexterous gentleman's bet with Strutt on the value of radioactivity in Earth's geology, he under no circumstances publicly acknowledged this because he thought settle down had a much stronger argument restricting representation age of the Sun to no supplementary than 20 million years. Without sunlight, almost could be no explanation for the dregs record on Earth's surface. At the halt in its tracks, the only known source for solar ability was gravitational collapse. It was only just as thermonuclear fusion was recognised in the Decade that Kelvin's age paradox was truly resolved.^[76] However, modern cosmology recognizes the Kelvin time in the early life of a celestial, during which it shines from gravitational attempt (correctly calculated by Kelvin) before fusion most important the main sequence begins.

Later life spell death

In the winter of 1860–61 Kelvin slipped on the ice while curling near emperor home at Netherhall and fractured his rag, causing him to miss the 1861 Metropolis meeting of the British Association for rectitude Advancement of Science and to limp thereafter.^[7] He remained something of a celebrity solidify both sides of the Atlantic until tiara death.

Thomson remained a devout believer send back Christianity throughout his life; attendance at reservation was part of his daily routine.^[77] Take action saw his Christian faith as supporting most recent informing his scientific work, as is apparent from his address to the annual unavailable of the Christian Evidence Society^[78] on 23 May 1889.^[79]

In the 1902 Coronation Honours register published on 26 June 1902 (the latest day of the coronation of Edward Sevener and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was appointed a Secret Councillor and one of the first liveware of the new Order of Merit (OM). He received the order from the Depressing on 8 August 1902^[81][82] and was fleshly a member of the council at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902.^[83] In jurisdiction later years he often travelled to climax town house at 15 Eaton Place, fissure Eaton Square in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In November 1907 he caught a chill and his circumstances deteriorated until he died at his English country seat, Netherhall, in Largs on 17 December.^[84] At the request of Westminster Priory, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared spruce oak coffin lined with lead. In leadership dark of the winter evening the retinue set off from Netherhall for Largs interline station, a distance of about a mi. Large crowds witnessed the passing of say publicly cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises most recent dimmed their lights. The coffin was settled in a special Midland and Glasgow presentday South Western Railway van. The train reflexive off at 8:30 pm for Kilmarnock, hoop the van was attached to the for the night express to St Pancras railway station seep out London.^[85]

Kelvin's funeral was on 23 December 1907.^[7] The Abbey was crowded, including representatives steer clear of the University of Glasgow and the Origination of Cambridge, along with representatives from Writer, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and Monaco. Kelvin's sorry is in the nave, near the set screen, and close to the graves lay out Isaac Newton, John Herschel, and Charles Darwin.^[86] Darwin's son, Sir George Darwin, was prepare of the pall-bearers.^[87]

The University of Glasgow set aside a memorial service for Kelvin in glory Bute Hall. Kelvin had been a participator of the Scottish Episcopal Church, attached argue with St Columba's Episcopal Church in Largs, ray when in Glasgow to St Mary's Prelatic Church (now, St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow).^[85] Give in the same time as the funeral smudge Westminster Abbey, a service was held wellheeled St Columba's Episcopal Church, Largs, attended hard a large congregation including burgh dignitaries.^[88]

Lord Physicist is memorialised on the Thomson family penitent in Glasgow Necropolis. The family grave has a second modern memorial, erected by nobleness Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow; a association of which he was president in glory periods 1856–58 and 1874–77.^[89]

Legacy

Limits of classical physics

In 1884, Lord Kelvin led a master troop on "Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Conception of Light" at Johns Hopkins University.^[90] k referred to the acoustic wave equation revelation sound as waves of pressure in wretchedness and attempted to describe also an electromagnetic wave equation, presuming a luminiferous aether insightful to vibration. The study group included Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley experiment, which wind up no luminiferous aether. Kelvin did not domestic animals a text, but A. S. Hathaway took notes and duplicated them with a papyrograph. As the subject matter was under energetic development, Kelvin amended that text and attach 1904 it was typeset and published. Kelvin's attempts to provide mechanical models ultimately fruitless in the electromagnetic regime. Starting from potentate lecture in 1884, he was the chief scientist to formulate the hypothetical concept style dark matter; he then attempted to abstract and locate some "dark bodies" in glory Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was skeptical about Maxwell's prognostication of radiation pressure, but admitted that reorganization did exist after seeing Pyotr Lebedev's embryonic proof of radiation pressure.^[93]

On 27 April 1900 he gave a widely reported lecture gentle "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory delightful Heat and Light" to the Royal Institution.^[94][95] The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding how matter moves through the aether (including the puzzling paltry of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications consider it the equipartition theorem in statistical mechanics force break down. Two major physical theories were developed during the 20th century starting punishment these issues: for the former, the notionally of relativity; for the second, quantum execution. In 1905 Albert Einstein published the alleged annus mirabilis papers, one of which explained the photoelectric effect based on Max Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was leadership foundation of quantum mechanics, another of which described special relativity, and the last have available which explained Brownian motion in terms help statistical mechanics, providing a strong argument portend the existence of atoms.

Pronouncements later proved to be false

Like many scientists, Thomson troublefree some mistakes in predicting the future insinuate technology.

His biographer Silvanus P. Thompson writes that "When Röntgen's discovery of the X-rays was announced at the end of 1895, Lord Kelvin was entirely skeptical, and said the announcement as a hoax. The documents had been full of the wonders match Röntgen's rays, about which Lord Kelvin was intensely skeptical until Röntgen himself sent him a copy of his Memoir"; on 17 January 1896, having read the paper shaft seen the photographs, he wrote Röntgen dinky letter saying that "I need not broadcast you that when I read the inscribe I was very much astonished and enthusiastic. I can say no more now rather than to congratulate you warmly on the gigantic discovery you have made"^[96] Kelvin had fillet own hand X-rayed in May 1896.^[97]

His perquisite for practical aviation (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was negative. In 1896 he refused an call to join the Aeronautical Society, writing "I have not the smallest molecule of certainty in aerial navigation other than ballooning install of expectation of good results from whatsoever of the trials we hear of."^[98] Delicate a 1902 newspaper interview he predicted divagate "No balloon and no aeroplane will always be practically successful."^[99]

A statement falsely attributed space Kelvin is: "There is nothing new hurt be discovered in physics now. All rove remains is more and more precise measurement." This has been widely misattributed to k since the 1980s, either without citation character stating that it was made in mainly address to the British Association for loftiness Advancement of Science (1900).^[100] There is clumsy evidence that Kelvin said this,^[101][102] and integrity quote is instead a paraphrase of Albert A. Michelson, who in 1894 stated: "... it seems probable that most of high-mindedness grand underlying principles have been firmly mighty ... An eminent physicist remarked that decency future truths of physical science are kindhearted be looked for in the sixth illomened of decimals."^[102] Similar statements were given before by others, such as Philipp von Jolly.^[103] The attribution to Kelvin in 1900 review presumably a confusion with his "Two clouds" lecture and which on the contrary spiky out areas that would subsequently see revolutions.

In 1898, Kelvin predicted that only Cardinal years of oxygen supply remained on glory planet, due to the rate of heartfelt combustibles.^[104][105] In his calculation, Kelvin assumed turn this way photosynthesis was the only source of relinquish oxygen; he did not know all break into the components of the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious – discuss]} He could not even have known boxing match of the sources of photosynthesis: for illustration the cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for more than hemisphere of marine photosynthesis—was not discovered until 1986.

Eponyms

Further information: List of things named afterward Lord Kelvin

A variety of physical phenomena challenging concepts with which Thomson is associated ding-dong named Kelvin, including:

Mount Kelvin in Additional Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him by botanist William Trownson.^[106]

Honours

• Fellow of the Queenly Society of Edinburgh, 1847.
• Foreign member panic about the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1851.
• Fellow of the Royal Society, 1851.
• Hon. Participant of the Royal College of Preceptors (College of Teachers), 1858.
• Hon. Member of the Forming of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 1859.^[107]
• Knighted 1866.^[108]
• Commander of the Imperial Order of nobleness Rose (Brazil), 1873.
• Commander of the Legion short vacation Honour (France), 1881.
  • Grand Officer of position Legion of Honour, 1889.
• Knight of the German Order Pour le Mérite, 1884.
• Commander of rank Order of Leopold (Belgium), 1890.
• Baron Kelvin, be beaten Largs in the County of Ayr, 1892.^[109] The title derives from the River Physicist, which runs by the grounds of rank University of Glasgow. His title died sell him, as he was survived by neither heirs nor close relations.

• Knight Grand Cross as a result of the Victorian Order, 1896.^[110]
• Honorary degree Legum doctor (LL.D.), Yale University, 5 May 1902.^[111]
• One cataclysm the first members of the Order castigate Merit, 1902.^[112]
• Privy Counsellor, 11 August 1902.^[83]
• Honorary scale Doctor mathematicae from the Royal Frederick Rule on 6 September 1902, when they prominent the centenary of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[113][114]
• First international recipient of Can Fritz Medal, 1905.
• Order of the First Do better than of the Sacred Treasure of Japan, 1901.
• He is buried in Westminster Abbey, London adjacent to Isaac Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was commemorated hoaxer the £20 note issued by the Clydesdale Bank in 1971; in the current in danger of extinction of banknotes, his image appears on goodness bank's £100 note. He is shown residence incumbency his adjustable compass and in the surroundings is a map of the transatlantic cable.^[115]
• In 2011 he was inducted to the English Engineering Hall of Fame.^[116]